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How Emerging Technologies Shape the Face of Chinese Courts?
Author: Ting LIAO, Ph.D. candidate, Wuhan University Institute of International Law
A. Technology in the Context of Judicial Reform
According to Max Weber, “the modern judge is a vending machine into which the pleadings are inserted together with the fee, and which then disgorges the judgment together with the reasons mechanically derived from the code.” [1]Max Weber’s conjecture is a metaphor for the vital connotation of intelligence. The key elements of intelligence are people, data and technology. So, how these elements are utilized in the judicial system?
Generally, a significant number of courts are experimenting with the use of internet, artificial intelligence and blockchain for case filling, investigation and evidence obtaining, trials and the initiation of ADR procedures. The so-called smart justice projects are commenced in many countries. China has also made significant progress in this domain. In addition to accelerating the use of the internet technology, the Supreme People’s Court of China has demonstrated its ambition to use AI and blockchain to solve problems in the judicial proceedings.[2]
B. Smart Court in China: An Overview
In China, the smart justice is a big project contains smart court, smart judicial administration and smart procuratorate. The smart court is the core of the entire smart justice project. “The Opinions of the Supreme People’s Court on Accelerating the Construction of Smart Courts” encourages people’s courts around the country to apply AI to provide smarter litigation and legal literacy services to the public, while reducing the burden of non-judicial matters for court staff as much as possible.
The construction of China’s smart courts involves more than 3,000 courts, more than 10,000 detached tribunals and more than 4,000 collaborative departments, containing tens of thousands of information systems such as information infrastructure, application systems, data resources, network security and operation and maintenance, etc. The entire smart court information system is particularly big and complex.
The smart court is a functional service platform for the informatization of the people’s courts. The platform integrates several cutting-edge technological capabilities, including face recognition identity verification, multi-way audio and video call functions, voice recognition functions and non-tax fee payment functions. These functions are tailor-made capability packages for courts, and they can be used in a variety of scenarios such as identity verification, online documents accessing, remote mediation, remote proceedings, enforcement, court hearing records and internal things. Through the smart platform, any court can easily access to the capabilities, and quickly get successful experiences from any other courts in China.
C. Examples of Good Practice
- Provide Litigation Information and Services
Peoples’ Courts in nine provinces or municipalities, including Beijing, Shanghai and Guangdong, have officially launched artificial intelligence terminals in their litigation service halls. Through these AI terminals, the public can access information about litigation and judicial procedures, as well as basic information about judges or court staff. The AI terminals can also automatically create judicial documents based on the information provided by the parties. More importantly, the AI can provide the parties risk analysis before filing a lawsuit. For example, artificial intelligence machines in courts in Beijing, Shanghai and Jiangsu can assess the possible outcome of litigation for the parties. The results are based on the AI’s analysis of more than 7,000 Chinese laws and regulations stored in its system, as well as numerous judicial precedents. At the same time, the AI machine can also suggest alternative dispute resolution options. For example, when an arbitration clause is present, the system will suggest arbitration, in divorce cases, if one of the parties unable to appear in people’s court, then the smart system shall advise online mediation.
In addition to parties, as to the service for the court proceeding itself, the new generation of technology[3] is used in the smart proceeding and is deeply integrated with it. These technologies provide effective support for judges’ decision making, and provide accurate portraits of natural persons, legal persons, cases, lawyers and other subjects. They also provide fast, convenient and multi-dimensional search and query services and automatic report services for difficult cases.
- Transfer of Case Materials
Some People’s Courts in Shenzhen, Shanghai and Jiangsu have set up artificial intelligence service terminals for parties to scan and submit electronic copies of materials to the court. This initiative can speed up the process of evidence submission and classification of evidence. In addition, digital transmission can also speed up the handover of case materials between different courts, especially in appellate cases where the court of first instance must transfer the case materials to the appellate court.
- Evidence Collection and Preservation
Technically speaking, the blockchain and its extensions can be used to secure electronic data and prevent tampering during the entire cycle of electronic data production, collection, transfer and storage, thus providing an effective means of investigation for relevant organizations. Comparing to traditional investigation methods, blockchain technology is suitable as an important subsidiary way to electronic data collection and preservation. This is because the blockchain’s timestamp can be used to mark the time when the electronic data was created, and the signature from the person’s private key can be used to verify the party’s genuine intent. The traceable characteristics of blockchain can facilitate the collection and identification of electronic data.[4]
In judicial practice, for example, the electronic evidence platform is on the homepage of Court’s litigation services website of Zhengzhou Intermediate People’s. It is possible to obtain evidence and make preservation on judicial blockchain of the court. This platform providing services such as evidence verification, evidence preservation, e-discovery and blockchain-based public disclosure. The evidence, such as electronic contracts, can be uploaded directly via the webpage, and the abstract of electronic data can be recorded in the blockchain in real time. Furthermore, this judicial blockchain has three tiers (pictured below). The first tier is the client side, which helps parties submit evidence, complaints and other services. The second tier is the server side, which provides trusted blockchain services such as real-name certification, timestamping and data storage. The third tier is the judicial side, which uses blockchain technology to form a consortium chain of judicial authentication, notaries and the court itself as nodes to form a comprehensive blockchain network of judicial proceedings.[5] In other words, people’s court shall be regarded as the key node on the chain, which can solve the contradiction between decentralization and the concentration of judicial authority, and this kind of blockchain is therefore more suitable for electronic evidence preservation.
Secondly, for lawyers, the validity of electronic lawyer investigation orders can be verified through judicial blockchain, a technology that significantly enhances the credibility of investigation orders and the convenience of investigations. For example? in Jilin Province, the entire process of application, approval, issuance, utilization and feedback of an investigation order is processed online. Lawyers firstly apply for an investigation order online, and after the judge approves it, the platform shall create an electronic investigation order and automatically uploads it to the judicial blockchain for storage, while sending it to lawyers in the form of electronic service. Lawyers shall hold the electronic investigation order to target entities to collect evidence. Those entities can scan the QR code on the order, and login to the judicial blockchain platform to verify the order. Then they shall provide the corresponding investigation evidence materials in accordance with the content of the investigation order.[6]
In addition, it should be noted that Article 11 of the “Provisions of the Supreme People’s Court on Several Issues Concerning the Trial of Cases by Internet Courts”, which came into force in 2018, explicitly recognizes data carriers on the blockchain as evidence in civil proceedings for the first time, but their validity needs to be verified by the courts.
The issue of blockchain evidence has already caused discussion among judges, particularly regarding the use of blockchain-based evidence in cases. For instance, what criteria should courts adopt to read such data? Approaches in judicial practice vary. Currently, there is no consistent approach in people’s court as to whether blockchain evidence needs to be submitted as original evidence. In certain recent cases, such as (2019) Jing 0491 Min Chu No. 805 Case and (2020) Jing 04 Min Zhong No. 309 Case, the court’s considerations for the determination of blockchain evidence are inconsistent.
- Case Management
People’s Courts in Shanghai and Shenzhen are piloting an artificial intelligence-assisted case management system that can analyze and automatically collate similar judicial precedents for judges to refer to. The system is also able to analyze errors in judgments drafted by judges by comparing the evidence in current cases with that in precedent cases. This will help maintain uniformity in judicial decisions. Currently, the system for criminal cases has been put into use, while the system for civil and administrative cases is still being tested in pilot stage.
- Online Proceedings
Chinese courts had already adopted online proceedings in individual cases before 2018. The Supreme People’s Court had released the Provisions of the Supreme People’s Court on Certain Issues Concerning the Hearing of Cases in Internet Courts. From 1 January 2020 to 31 May 2021, 12.197 million cases were filed online by courts nationwide, with online filing accounting for 28.3% of all cases filed; 6.513 million total online mediation, 6.142,900 successful mediation cases before litigation; 1.288 million online court proceedings 33.833 million electronic service of documents.[7]
Recently, the Supreme Court, some provincial courts and municipal courts have also issued rules on “online proceedings”. The Supreme People’s Court has issued the Online Litigation Regulations for the People’s Court 2021 which stipulates online litigation should follow the five principles, namely fairness and efficiency, legitimate and voluntary principle, protection of rights, principle of safety and reliability. This regulation emphasizes the principles of application of technology, strictly adhere to technology neutrality, to ensure that technology is reliable. [8]Furthermore, in 2021 the Supreme People’s Court has issued the Several Regulations on Providing Online Filing Services for Cross-border Litigants, relying on the provision of online filing for cross-border litigants through the China mobile micro court. Based on Tencent’s cloud technology, the Micro Court can also be linked to the most used communication tool in China, namely WeChat. Using the micro courts mini programs allows for a dozen functions such as public services, litigation, enforcement and personal case management.[9]
- Framework of the Litigation Services Network
The litigation service network is an important carrier for the court to conduct business and litigation services on the Internet, providing convenient and efficient online litigation services for parties and litigation agents, greatly facilitating the public’s litigation, while strengthening the supervision and management of the court’s litigation services, enhancing the quality of litigation services and improving the standardization of litigation services. The picture shows the functioning and operation mechanism of a litigation services network.[10]
[1] See Max Weber, On Law in Economy and Society (Edward Shils and Max Rheinstein trans., Harvard University Press 1954).
[2] For example, in 2019, the Supreme People’s Court of China approved several documents such as “The Report on the Promotion of China Mobile Micro Courts”, “The Report on the Construction of the Smart Court Laboratory”, and “The General Idea of Comprehensively Promoting the Construction of Judicial Artificial Intelligence”.
[3] Including big data, cloud computing, knowledge mapping, text mining, optical character recognition (OCR), natural language processing (NLP) etc.
[4] See Trusted Blockchain Initiatives, White Paper on Blockchain Preservation of Judicial Evidence (2019).
[5] See Zhengzhou Court Judicial Service Website < http://www.zzfyssfw.gov.cn/zjy/> accessed 09 Nov. 2021; A consortium chain is a blockchain system that is open to a specific set of organizations, and this licensing mechanism then brings a potential hub to the blockchain, and The node access system in a consortium chain means that it already grants a certain level of trust to the nodes.. see also Internet court of Hangzhou < https://blockchain.netcourt.gov.cn/first>accessed 09 Nov. 2021.
[6] See e.g., a pilot project of the Supreme People’s Court of China, the Jilin Intermediate People’s Court proposed the Trusted Operation Application Scene: Full Process Assurance for Litigation Services (Electronic Lawyer Investigation Order); see also People’s Court Daily, Piloting the “judicial chain” and multipions practice of Jilin’s smart court construction< http://legal.people.com.cn/n1/2020/1124/c42510-31942250.html>accessed 08 Nov. 2021.
[7] See Chinanews < https://www.chinanews.com/gn/2021/06-17/9501170.shtml>accessed 08 Nov. 2021.
[8] SPC of PRC, Report about Online Litigation Regulation for the People’s Court< http://www.court.gov.cn/zixun-xiangqing-317061.html>accessed 08 Nov. 2021.
[9] See e.g., Xinhuanet < http://www.xinhuanet.com/legal/2020-05/07/c_1125953941.htm>accessed 08 Nov. 2021.
[10] Xu Jianfeng et.al., Introduction to Smart Court System Engineering (People’s Court Press 2021).
Ducking the Ricochet: The Supreme Court of Canada on Foreign Judgments
Written by Stephen G.A. Pitel, Western University
The court’s decision in HMB Holdings Ltd v Antigua and Barbuda, 2021 SCC 44 (available here) is interesting for at least two reasons. First, it adds to the understanding of the meaning of “carrying on business” as a test for being present in a jurisdiction. Second, it casts doubt on the application of statutory registration schemes for foreign judgments to judgments that themselves recognize a foreign judgment (the so-called ricochet).
In this litigation HMB obtained a Privy Council judgment and then sued to enforce it in British Columbia. Antigua did not defend and so HMB obtained a default judgment. HMB then sought to register the British Columbia judgment in Ontario under Ontario’s statutory scheme for the registration of judgments (known as REJA). An important threshold issue was whether the statutory scheme applied to judgments like the British Columbia one (a recognition judgment). In part this is a matter of statutory interpretation but in part it requires thinking through the aim and objectives of the scheme.
Indonesia deposits its instrument of accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention
Guest post by Priskila P. Penasthika, Ph.D. Researcher at Erasmus School of Law – Rotterdam and Lecturer in Private International Law at Universitas Indonesia.
Indonesian Accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention
After almost a decade of discussions, negotiations, and preparations, Indonesia has finally acceded to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention. In early January this year, Indonesia enacted Presidential Regulation Number 2 of 2021, signed by President Joko Widodo, as the instrument of accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention. The HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention is the first HCCH Convention to which Indonesia became a Contracting Party.
In its accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention, Indonesia made a declaration to exclude documents issued by the Prosecutor Office, the prosecuting body in Indonesia, from the definition of public documents whose requirements of legalisation have been abolished in accordance with Article 1(a) of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention.
In accordance with Article 12 of the Convention, Indonesia deposited its instrument of accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention with the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of the Netherlands on 5 October 2021. The ceremony was a very special occasion because it coincided with the celebration of the 60th anniversary of the Convention. Therefore, the ceremony was part of the Fifth Meeting of the Special Commission on the practical operation of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention and witnessed by all Contracting Parties of the Convention.
The Minister of Law and Human Rights of the Republic of Indonesia, Yasonna H. Laoly, joined the ceremony and delivered a speech virtually via videoconference from Jakarta. Minister Laoly voiced the importance of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention for Indonesia and underlined Indonesia’s commitment to continue cooperating with the HCCH.
Indonesia’s accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention brings good news for the many parties concerned. The current process of public document legalisation in Indonesia still follows a traditional method that is highly complex, involves various institutions, and is time-consuming and costly. Because of the accession to the Convention, the complicated and lengthy procedure will be simplified to a single step and will involve only one institution – the designated Competent Authority in Indonesia. Referring to Article 6 of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention, in its accession to the Convention, Indonesia designated the Ministry of Law and Human Rights as the Competent Authority. When the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention enters into force for Indonesia, this Ministry will be responsible for issuing the Apostille certificate to authenticate public documents in Indonesia for use in other Contracting Parties to the Convention.
A Reception Celebrating the 60th Anniversary of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention and Indonesian Accession
To celebrate the 60th anniversary of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention and Indonesia’s accession to it, an evening reception was held on 5 October 2021 at the residence of the Swiss ambassador to the Kingdom of the Netherlands in The Hague. The reception was organised at the invitation of His Excellency Heinz Walker-Nederkoorn, Swiss Ambassador to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, His Excellency Mayerfas, Indonesian Ambassador to the Kingdom of the Netherlands, and Dr Christophe Bernasconi, Secretary-General of the HCCH. Representatives of some Contracting Parties to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention attended the reception; among other attendees were the representatives from recent Contracting Parties such as the Philippines and Singapore, as well as some of the earliest signatories, including Greece, Luxembourg, and Germany.
The host, Ambassador Walker-Nederkoorn, opened the reception with a welcome speech. It was followed by a speech by Ambassador Mayerfas. He echoed the statement of Minister Laoly on the importance of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention for Indonesia, especially as a strategy to accomplish the goals of Vision of Indonesia 2045, an ideal that is set to commemorate the centenary of Indonesian independence in 2045. Ambassador Mayerfas also emphasised that Indonesia’s accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention marked the first important step for future works and cooperation with the HCCH.
Thereafter, Dr Christophe Bernasconi warmly welcomed Indonesia as a Contracting Party to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention in his speech at the reception. He also voiced the hope that Indonesia and HCCH continue good cooperation and relations, and invited Indonesia to accede to the other HCCH Conventions considered important by Indonesia.
The Entry into Force of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention for Indonesia
Referring to Articles 12 and 15 of the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention, upon the deposit of the instrument of accession, there is a period of six months for other Contracting Parties to the Convention to raise an objection to the Indonesian accession. The HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention will enter into force for Indonesia on the sixtieth day after the expiration of this six-month period. With great hope that Indonesia’s accession will not meet any objection from the existing Contracting Parties to the Convention, any such objection would affect only the entry into force of the Convention between Indonesia and the objecting Contracting Party. The HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention will therefore enter into force for Indonesia on 4 June 2022.
A more in-depth analysis (in Indonesian) concerning the present procedure of public document legalisation in Indonesia and the urgency to accede to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention can be accessed here. An article reporting the Indonesian accession to the HCCH 1961 Apostille Convention earlier this year can be accessed here.
News
Research Methods in Private International Law – book and webinars
As some readers will have seen through various other blogs and social media, this month the book Research Methods in Private International Law. A Handbook on Regulation, Research and Teaching, edited by Xandra Kramer (Erasmus University Rotterdam/Utrecht University) and Laura Carballo Piñeiro (University of Vigo) was published. The book is part of the Handbook in Research Methods of Law Series of Edward Elgar Publishing.
“The book seeks to provide insights into the different methodological approaches to private international law from both a regulatory approach and from a research and educational perspective. Established methodologies as well as evolving regulatory and empirical approaches that shape the future of private international law are discussed. To this end, the book is structured in three parts that correspond to three core debates, although they inevitably overlap: (I) the classification of private international law as private law and its interaction with international public law and regulation; (II) inter- and multidisciplinary approaches and research methods; and (III) how private international law helps to frame and address the critical debates of our time as well as the role of legal scholarship and education in shaping the future of private international law.” (Introductory Chapter, p. 1-2).
The book contains 18 chapters written by a team of authors spanning all continents discussing classical themes of private international law and new challenges in regulation, research, and teaching. It includes views from politics, human rights, legal theory, soft law and private regulation, comparative law, empirical studies, economics, EU law making, technology, laymen, feminism, colonialism, as well as university teaching in Mexico, Nigeria and The Netherlands.
Contributors are (in alphabetical order): María Mercedes Albornoz, Adriani Dori, Diego P. Fernández Arroyo, Sai Ramani Garimella, Marco Giacalone, Paola Giacalone, Nuria González-Martin, Christoph A. Kern, Mary Keyes, Patrick Kinsch, Dulce Lopes, Cristina M. Mariottini, Ralf Michaels, Chukwuma Samuel Adesina Okoli, Marta Pertegás, Giesela Rühl, Veronica Ruiz Abou-Nigm, Carlota Ucín, Aukje van Hoek, Christopher Whytock, and Abubakri Yekini.
Further information is available on the publisher’s website here. The Prelims and the introductory chapter by the editors ‘Private international law in a global world: a revival of methodologies and research methods’ are freely accessible here. Critical acclaim by Geert Van Calster (KU Leuven), Yuko Nishitani (Kyoto University), Hans van Loon (former SG Hague Conference on Private International Law) and Symeon C. Symeonides (Willamette University College of Law).
Save the Date! Two launch webinars will take place on:
- 10 September 2024, from 10-12am CET: Research Methods in Private International Law: Views from Regulation, Research and Education (confirmed speakers include Dulce Lopes, Diego Fernández Arroyo, Giesela Rühl, Adriani Dori and Mary Keyes)
- 23 September 2024, from 10-11.30 CET: Research Methods in Private International Law: Educational Perspectives (co-organised by the University of Sydney, moderated by Jeanne Huang; confirmed speakers include Veronica Ruiz Abou-Nigm/Ralf Michaels, Ramani Garimella, Abubakri Yekeni & Chukwuma Okoli and Aukje van Hoek
More details and information on registration will follow soon.
For those interested, a report of an extensive online interview with the editors by Young-OGEMID can be downloaded from the website of Transnational Dispute Management.
HCCH Monthly Update: May 2024
Conventions & Instruments
On 14 May 2024, Georgia deposited its instrument of ratification of the 2007 Child Support Convention and of the 2007 Maintenance Obligations Protocol. With the ratification of Georgia, 51 States and the European Union are bound by the 2007 Child Support Convention, while 32 States and the European Union are bound by the 2007 Maintenance Obligations Protocol. More information is available here.
Meetings & Events
On 14 May 2024, the kick-off meeting of the Experts’ Group (EG) on Central Bank Digital Currencies (CBDCs) was held online. Pursuant to its mandate, the EG will study the applicable law and jurisdiction issues raised by the cross-border use and transfers of CBDCs. More information is available here.
From 14 to 17 May 2024, the First Regional Meeting of Judges of the International Hague Network of Judges (IHNJ) from Latin America and the Caribbean was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with the aim of fostering discussion on the proper and effective implementation of the 1980 Child Abduction Convention. More information is available here.
On 15 May 2024, the kick-off meeting of the Digital Tokens Project was held online. Under this project, the Permanent Bureau of the HCCH, in partnership with relevant subject-matter experts and Observers, is studying the private international law issues relating to digital tokens. More information is available here.
On 17 and 21 May 2024, the first meetings of the Working Groups on the Practical Handbooks and Country Profiles for the 1965 Service and 1970 Convention were held online. More information is available here.
On 29 May 2024, the first meeting of the Working Group established to complete the Country Profile and work on the draft Cooperation Request Recommended Model Form for the 1996 Child Protection Convention was held online. More information is available here.
Calls for Tender
The HCCH recently published a call for tenders for the development of electronic Country Profiles (e-Country Profiles) for a number of key HCCH Conventions. The deadline for the submission of tenders is 27 August 2024 (17:00 CEST). More information is available here.
These monthly updates are published by the Permanent Bureau of the Hague Conference on Private International Law (HCCH), providing an overview of the latest developments. More information and materials are available on the HCCH website.
Out now: Second Edition of Conflict of Laws and the Internet
Edward Elgar has just published the second edition of Conflict of Laws and the Internet by Pedro De Miguel Asensio.